RCA: One of the stipulations for RC aircraft to be exempted from FAA oversight (detailed in Federal Law 112-95 Sec 336-2) requires such aircraft to be operated in accordance with a national community-based organization (CBO) that is recognized by the FAA. For RCA hobbyists, this CBO is the Academy of Model Aeronautics (AMA). AMA’s website contains a wealth of highly organized materials to assist RC fliers in the safe operation of their aircraft. AMA believes that by operating responsibly, RC enthusiasts can avoid the burdens of cumbersome federal regulation. However, AMA rules are simply best practices recommendations. The association has no legal authority whatsoever over the RC community.

 

Recreational” Drones: UAVs operated purely for fun aren’t subject to FAA oversight. Additionally, they don’t fall under the AMA’s umbrella either. Due to the nature of their operations, the AMA doesn’t permit drones because its insurance won’t cover them. To a large extent, recreational UAVs are self-policing.

 

Commercial UAVs: Unmanned business aircraft are primarily subject to FAA scrutiny. In some cases, depending on the nature of its operations, a commercial operator might be subject to oversight by additional government bodies as well.

 

Government UASs: In order to operate within the NAS, all government drones must abide by the same regulations and operating procedures as human-occupied aircraft. While such aircraft might be operated/overseen by a number of government entities, the FAA is the chief agency in charge of their supervision. Outside the NAS, operation is often subject to other organizational control; most often from the military and Department of Defense (DoD).

 

Pilot Certification

 

RCA: For the most part, RC hobbyists aren’t subject to any type of certification. An exception exists for turbine-powered fliers, who must be certified in gas turbine powerplant operations and all manners of safety pertinent to their aircraft. In addition, pilots who engage in video piloting (i.e. utilize first-person view [FPV] equipment) are required to use spotters to maintain visual line of sight (VSOL) contact with the FPV aircraft at all times. Such spotters are required to be experienced RCA pilots, though not necessarily FPV fliers. Operators of Large Model Airplanes (LMAs) are also subject to additional experience requirements. Despite these restrictions, the RC world offers numerous piloting opportunities with no experience requirements whatsoever.

 

Recreational UAVs: Hobbyist drone fliers currently aren’t subject to any form of licensing requirement. Many expect this to change as the FAA develops guidelines and operating requirements for unmanned aircraft.

 

Commercial Drones: According to the FAA, if an airworthiness certificate is required for the aircraft in question, the aircraft’s controller must hold an appropriate FAA pilot certificate. Although the FAA does list a few circumstances when a pilot certificate may not be required, the pilot must still be appropriately trained in the distinct characteristics of the vehicle being operated.

 

Government UAVs: Government agencies have the luxury of being able to self-certify their operators’ abilities (to an extent). For instance, military personnel may operate drones without holding FAA-issued credentials, provided they’ve been appropriately trained for the UAS in question. The FAA estimates UAV pilot training to require between two months and one year.

 

Altitude

 

Recreational RCAs/UAVs: One of the simplest factors that distinguish “drones” (from the government’s viewpoint) from RCAs is their permissible operating altitudes. Recreational aircraft are required to remain below 400 feet at all times. At present, the FAA’s direction on this issue is limited to Advisory Circular AC 91-57, dated June 9, 1981. The AMA is quick to point out that this guideline is advisory in nature only and not an actual FAA regulation. However, strict FAA regulation of this altitude limitation is expected by many in the near future.

 

Government/Commercial Drones: Approved UAS aircraft are not subject to specific altitude limitations. While some erroneously believe that drone aircraft must operate above 400 feet, certain military vehicles (notably the Raven) can be operated at street level. Various operations might be restricted to specific operating altitudes depending on the type and location of their missions. In particular, commercial UAVs’ airworthiness certificates could prohibit operations above/below certain heights. However, the exact permissible altitudes will vary between certificate holders.

 

Range

 

Recreational Aircraft: Hobby aircraft, whether RCAs or drones, aren’t subject to a specific range limitation per se. Instead, such vehicles are required to be operated within visual line of sight (VLOS) of the pilot at all times. Whereas the altitude limitation is merely advisory in nature, the VLOS requirement is in fact Public Law (112-95 Sec. 336 (c) 2, dated February 14, 2012). First-person view (FPV) drones, with their onboard cameras and video transmitters, are technically capable of operating well beyond visual range (in some cases 20-30 miles or more). Despite such capability, AMA’s safety code requires pilots to use their natural vision as the primary form of observation (AMA Document #550). Echoing this requirement, Doug Davis of New Mexico State University (which operates the nation’s only civilian drone test area) correctly predicted that the government would eventually restrict recreational drone flights to within sight of the operator.

 

Commercial/Government UASs: Government and commercial drones aren’t subject to specific range limitations, though certain requirements might be imposed on individual operators. In terms of capability, some drones are able to stay aloft for days at a time. According to Wikipedia, Global Hawks are able to take off from San Francisco, fly to Maine, and map the state (in its entirety) before needing to return.

 

Speed

 

RCAs/Hobby Drones: The general consensus among non-certified aircraft fliers is that speeds should be limited to 100mph. For FPV RCAs, the speed is further restricted to 70mph in order to provide pilots with more reactionary time. In some cases, speeds in excess of 100mph are permitted. As part of its Large Model Airplane (LMA) Program, AMA permits speeds of 120mph (LMA-2), 140mph (LTMA-2), and even 200mph (LTMA-1). However, in order to qualify for this program, both pilots and aircraft are subject to additional scrutiny and AMA approval.

 

Commercial & Government UAVs: There are currently no blanket speed restrictions that apply specifically to government-approved drones. Instead, since one of the basic UAV requirements for operation in the NAS is to comply with the same procedures and regulations as aircraft with humans on board, we can infer that drones are subject to the speed limits of the airspace classes in which they fly. Outside of the NAS, drone speeds depend on the aircraft model and its mission. As some military drones serve as radar decoys, their speeds will mirror those of the replicated aircraft. In such cases, speeds above Mach 1 aren’t unheard of.

 

Weight

 

RCAs/Hobby Drones: The basic weight restriction for unmanned recreational aircraft is 55 lbs. AMA further limits FPV RCAs to no more than 15 lbs. For RCAs to exceed 55 lbs, they must be certified in compliance with AMA’s LMA program. When approved, LMA-1 and LTMA-1 aircraft may weigh up to 77.2 lbs. LMA-2 and LTMA-2 planes may weigh up to 125 lbs and 100 lbs respectively. Since AMA guidelines don’t apply to recreational “drones,” they aren’t eligible for approval above 55 lbs. However, currently there is no federal regulation that specifies drone weight, so the 55-lb limit is merely a guideline.

 

Commercial/Government UASs: Government-recognized drones aren’t subject to specific weight limitations. Instead, drone weight is more a result of an aircraft’s design and mission. Historically, UAVs have ranged from mere ounces to over 20 tons.

 

Operating Area

 

Recreational UAVs & RCAs: In addition to their altitude limit of 400 feet, hobbyist aircraft are restricted as to where they’re permitted to fly. These recreational aircraft are limited to flying in unpopulated areas or at designated fields, with wide-open spaces being the most common locations. AMA and the FAA both further prohibit operations from being conducted within three miles of an airport unless the airport operator, air traffic control (ATC) tower (if applicable), and/or flight service station (FSS) has been notified and operating procedures have been agreed upon. Additionally, the FAA stipulates that turbine-powered RCA should only be flown from AMA-approved locations. Under no circumstances are recreational aircraft allowed to be flown near/over people unless specific safety procedures are in place.

 

Government & Commercial Drones: In contrast to hobbyist aircraft, FAA-certified drones are not prohibited from operating near/over crowds and populated areas. Depending on the mission, some UAS operations might take place almost exclusively in the vicinity of people. In some cases, the FAA might restrict operators to specific geographical areas (depending on their missions). However, as such unmanned vehicles are subject to the same operating standards as human-occupied aircraft, we can expect drones to abide by the requirements of 14 CFR 19.119 while in the NAS. Despite this requirement, it’s quite likely the FAA will establish rules permitting lower/closer operation of drones in the future. Presently, the FAA could also issue waivers for certain operators/types of operation, with government entities especially likely to receive special authorization.

 

Equipment/Payload

 

RCAs: Radio-controlled aircraft can be outfitted with a surprising variety of equipment; provided the vehicle’s payload is capable of supporting the weight. AMA prohibits a few specific items, namely gaseous boosts and metal blade props, unless the aircraft is a helicopter in compliance with AMA document #555. RC jets must also have FADEC (full authority digital engine control), as well as an electric power source (with lithium polymer [LiPo] batteries a popular choice) to operate the FADEC. Besides these guidelines, there is presently very little in terms of mandatory equipment and/or restrictions on RC accessories. Until such time that the federal government lays out specifications, operators should use a combination of AMA guidance and common sense when considering furnishings for their aircraft.

 

In terms of absolute basics, RC aircraft must include a handheld transmitter/controller, an onboard signal receiver, some kind of motor[s] (electric, internal combustion, or jet), and a battery to operate the control surface servos. Beyond these essentials, GPS, stabilizers, sensors, and autopilots are popular add-ons. Some 3D aircraft are even being constructed with controllable-pitch propellers and retractable landing gear. As technology continues to evolve, it’s a fair assumption that the RC world will continue to develop even more elaborate designs.

 

As mentioned earlier, first-person view (FPV) flight is a growing segment of the hobbyist RC community. Basic equipment for FPV aircraft consists of an aircraft-mounted video camera, a video transmitter & receiver, and some sort of ground-based display. The most common display types are typically portable LCD screens and/or video goggles. Other popular camera options include pan & tilt mounts, which provide the pilot with a near-real, first-person vantage point. However, to be eligible for AMA insurance coverage the aircraft must remain within AMA’s FPV limitations (max speed 70mph, max weight 15 lbs), utilize experienced RC pilots as spotters for the entire flight, remain within visual line of sight (VSOL), and use the pilot’s natural vision as the primary means to operate the aircraft.

 

In an effort to protect citizens’ 1^st and 4^th amendment rights, AMA prohibits all camera-equipped aircraft from conducting aerial surveillance wherever there is a reasonable expectation of privacy; unless the owner’s written permission is obtained in advance. In addition, as primarily pilot-controlled vehicles, AMA specifies that RCAs over 15 lbs and/or 70mph may only use an autopilot for a programmed return to launch (RTL) in the event of a signal loss; rather than to follow a GPS-based, predetermined waypoint course.

 

Recreational Drones: In terms of equipment, hobby UAVs are quite similar to RCAs. The chief difference is that, whereas an RCA may contain an autopilot, a UAV will be outfitted with sufficient equipment to support autonomous flight. Such equipment will include: GPS, onboard computers/hardware/electronics, sensors, stabilizers, an autopilot/servo controller, and any other equipment the builder chooses to install. UAVs will also include some sort of programming software to allow the operator to preprogram the route of autonomous flight. Since amateur UAVs aren’t subject to AMA oversight, they enjoy some additional operating flexibility over the RCA community.

 

Commercial UAVs: Commercially operated drones will include much of the same equipment as recreational UAVs. However, since these approved vehicles operate within the same airspace as human-occupied aircraft, they must also be able to detect and give way to piloted air traffic. Other features of commercial drones will vary based on their specific missions and airworthiness certificates. Since contemporary commercial drones are only being certified for research & development purposes, scientific sensors and computer equipment are common UAV payloads. Such equipment has been known to include ultraviolet and microwave detectors; infrared, near infrared, and visual spectrum imagers; chemical & biological sensors; thermal, HD, and hyperspectral cameras; electromagnetic spectrum scanners; and gamma ray sensors. As commercial drone usage matures, it’s anyone’s guess as to how elaborate future UAVs will become.

 

Government Drones: Government UASs employ much of the same equipment used in commercial drones, and more. Since military drone usage is perhaps the most well-known segment of the government UAV world, it should come as no surprise that weapons are a common defense payload. The military’s Predator drones are frequently equipped with Hellfire missiles and are capable of laser-guided attacks. Besides combat operations, military drone usage has been known to include target & decoy duty, reconnaissance, and logistics roles. The Predator’s synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is also able to produce photo-quality pictures through rain, fog and clouds; in daylight or darkness; in real time.

 

Recently, news stories (and Kentucky Senator Rand Paul) have addressed concerns that President Obama has the authority to use drones to target American citizens on US soil. The U.S. Attorney General has since denied such allegations, claiming the President does not have the authority to target U.S. citizens on American soil who are not engaged in combat. However, the President still has the power to order drone strikes on overseas targets.

 

In non-military operations, drones have become popular in law enforcement duties; often being employed in Orwellian-like roles. Police UASs can be outfitted with license plate scanners, facial recognition software, open Wi-Fi sniffers, thermal imagers, and a host of other privacy-compromising sensors and equipment. Such usage has garnered attention and complaints as an invasion of privacy. The subject was prominently addressed in Florida vs. Riley, in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that individuals on their own (private) property do not have a right to privacy from police observation conducted from public airspace. So, although the average Joe isn’t allowed to spy on his neighbors, apparently Big Brother can.

 

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